Psychology and Culture

Meditation, originally stemming from the Buddhist tradition, has been the subject of extensive psychological research, with a growing body of literature exploring its effects on various mental and physical health aspects. This article consists of three studies. The study 1 and 2 aimed to investigate the brain's bioelectric activity during zen meditation, employing Vietnamese monks and nuns (N=16) in their natural monastic environment as the experimental group and non-practitioners as the control group (N=3), in two different monasteries: Truc Lam Tay Thien and Truc Lam Thuong Chieu. The measurements were carried out using a 4-channel BrainBit Flex mobile cap during morning and evening meditation sessions. The study 3 conducted on nuns (N=13) from Truc Lam monastery focuses on exploring the effects of meditation experience and the inhalation of an essential oil blend on brainwave activity during meditation. The study involved two measurements conducted during short meditation sessions, separated by the inhalation of essential oils. The study 1 revealed that Zen monks exhibited higher alpha and theta band activity during meditation compared to individuals without meditation experience, while beta band power remained unchanged. In Study 2 no differences were observed between brain signals during meditation and mind-wandering in monks, the advanced monks were able to change beta brain waves after one minute wondering mind into meditative state of alpha waves within short 5-minutes sessions. It suggests that Zen practitioners can influence the brain waves not only during long meditation but also increase the dynamic of meditation in very short trials. The study 3 shows no statistically significant differences between nuns with shorter and longer meditation experiences and a significant decrease in theta wave amplitude after inhalation. Our studies enhances understanding of neural activity in advanced meditation, demonstrating that Zen meditation exhibits distinct EEG characteristics compared to mindfulness and analytical Tibetan meditation. In contrast to other forms of meditation, Zen meditation does not exhibit beta reductions, pointing to unique underlying neural mechanisms. However, it shares key features with mindfulness, such as a combination of deep relaxation and heightened alertness, reflected in increased alpha and theta activity. Additionally, this is probably the first study to integrate aromatherapy and meditation within the context of EEG, contributing to the understanding of how scents can influence brain activity during meditation.

Keywords: meditation, monastery, Zen, EEG, Vietnam, aromatherapy

Różycka-Tran, J., Truong Thi Khanh Ha, Bochniarz, K., Radoń, S., Tran Anh Quan (2025). Zen in the Brain: An EEG natural case study on meditation in Vietnamese zen monasteries. Religions. Under review

Study 1

ZEN IN THE BRAIN

Prof Joanna Różycka-Tran with collaborators conducted pioneering studies in Vietnamese Zen monasteries on the bioelectric brain activity during Zen meditation. The study involved monks and nuns during meditation sessions over extended stays in the monasteries.

This study investigated the bioelectric brain activity associated with Zen meditation in an ecologically valid monastic setting, comparing experienced Zen practitioners with nonmeditating controls. The experimental group consisted of Vietnamese monks from Truc Lam Tay Thien and Truc Lam Thuong Chieu monasteries, while the control group comprised nonpractitioners. EEG data were collected using a portable 4-channel BrainBit Flex cap during both morning and evening meditation sessions, capturing theta (5-8 Hz), alpha (8-13 Hz) and beta (15-30 Hz) frequency bands. Results indicate that monks exhibited significantly higher alpha and theta band power during meditation than controls, with no changes in beta power. This pattern distinguishes Zen meditation from other forms, like mindfulness practices, where reductions in beta power are often observed. Notably, there were no significant EEG differences in monks’ brain activity between meditation and mind-wandering states, nor between brief (4-minute) and extended (1.5-hour) meditation sessions, suggesting a high degree of continuity between meditative and non-meditative states in advanced practitioners.

These findings contribute to understanding the neural mechanisms of Zen meditation, which appears to foster a distinct state combining relaxation and sustained alertness. The study also demonstrates the effectiveness of using mobile EEG technology for in-situ data collection in naturalistic environments, supporting the advancement of meditation research beyond laboratory constraints.

Study 2

Study 3

The article presents a report on a stay at the Truc Lam Zen monastery in Da Lat, Vietnam, where we resided for nearly a month with students from the University of Gdańsk. The primary focus of our investigation was the impact of breathing and concentration techniques, routinely practiced at the monastery, on self-regulatory processes. Despite extensive research in Western psychology, the nature and underlying mechanisms of self-regulation remain insufficiently understood. During our time at the monastery, we observed and experienced various psychological changes induced by regular meditation practices. Our observations and experiences suggest that breathing techniques and mental concentration play a crucial role in facilitating effective self-regulation processes.

Różycka-Tran, J., Tran, A. (2014). Self- Regulation Techniques in Vietnamese Zen Truc Lam Monastery. Gdańsk Studies on East Asia, 6, 123-133.

ENERGY IN THE BRAIN

The authors consider the existence of an energy transfer system (ETS) in the human body and its consequences for health, performing a review of the available literature and studies. The article is an attempt to describe the possible psychophysiological mechanism of ETS (i.e. mechanism of transmission of stimuli in connective tissue) based on biochemical reactions, which was first described in Eastern Medicine a long time ago. Some previously reported results suggest that it is possible to modulate the psychophysiological effects on the connective tissue, and that the internal ETS can be activated not only through internal acupoints but also through breath self-regulation techniques. Among the people specialized in such breathing are martial art fighters. In a very preliminary pilot study we investigate four cases in a Vietnamese Thiên Môn Đạo (TMD) group, where breathing techniques result in cardiovascular and blood pressure changes, which can indirectly suggest activation of ETS. An additional energy system in the human body is postulated. However, future research is seriously needed. Findings could be applicable e.g. in cardiac rehabilitation programs.

Keywords: health psychology; energy transfer system (ETS); psychopsychological
functioning; Vietnamese martial art school

Gajewski, M., Różycka-Tran, J., Hao van Le (2019). Psycho-physiological mechanism of the energy transfer in human body: myth or reality? Health Psychology Report. volume 7(4), 267-275.

The research was conducted on practitioners of a Vietnamese martial arts school. Thien Mon Dao that has developed techniques for effective control of human psychophysiological system. In our study, we examined the impact of these techniques on the heart, using monitors that control blood pressure and heart rate. The measurements clearly confirm the effectiveness of the techniques used and their effect on heart rate (increase and decrease of pressure, cardiac arrest). The results obtained indicate the occurrence of a new way of selfregulatory processes in the human body, until now untaken into consideration in the western psychological science. The observed techniques (after appropriate training) can be employment in the methods of stress reduction and support for treatment of cardiac disorders.

While riding a motorcycle through the center of Hanoi, we observed people "running" on the surface of Hoan Kiem Lake. It turned out that one of the public demonstrations of a Vietnamese group was taking place. The leader of the group agreed to a conversation about unusual phenomena that contradicted the natural laws we were familiar with, which we had just witnessed. During our stay at the school, we recorded video footage clearly showing the group's skills: bending a reinforced concrete rod with sensitive points of the body and lifting three buckets filled with water using the eyelid. After the demonstration and discussions, we arranged for further research during training in Hanoi.

In total, we conducted three studies on the Thien Mon Dao group in Hanoi—one in 2009 and two in 2011. During the first study, we manually measured heart rate. Almost all participants in this preliminary study managed to stop their pulse, which could be felt by touch. For the subsequent studies, we used two blood pressure monitors: the Digital Automatic Blood Pressure Monitor Model M3 OMRON and the 7 Series Wrist Blood Pressure Monitor OMRON. We conducted two measurements: in the first study, we asked the participants to speed up and slow down their heart rate, and in the second measurement, we asked them to stop their heart rate. The studies were conducted during a regular evening training session in Hanoi, Vietnam. First, we took baseline measurements for each participant before inducing any changes in the body. Then, one by one, we asked the participants to accelerate their heart rate. Each participant performed a ten-second breathing technique, after which we took another measurement. After completing the cycle for 11 individuals, we began a new cycle, asking the same participants to slow down their heart rate. Each participant performed another ten-second technique, after which we measured their blood pressure and pulse. All instructions, commands, and information were translated from Polish to Vietnamese. In the second measurement, we only asked the participants to slow down or stop their heart rate. The participants practiced martial arts in the beginner group of Thien Mon Dao, meaning they had been practicing for no longer than two years. Training sessions took place twice a week for 1.5 hours each. The participants' ages ranged from 20 to 31 years (one individual was 57 years old and practiced for health reasons), with an average weight of 50-68 kg (mean weight 57 kg). In addition to martial arts training, the participants led normal family, school, and professional lives.

In the first measurement, we examined 11 individuals, while in the second measurement, we tested 8 participants. The dependent variables in our study were blood pressure levels (understood as the force with which blood strikes the walls of the arteries, with arterial blood pressure changing during the cardiac cycle) and pulse rate. Therefore, we measured systolic blood pressure (SYS), diastolic blood pressure (DIA), and pulse rate using repeated measurements—before and after performing the technique. First and foremost, a significant correlation was found between systolic and diastolic blood pressure, consistent with the theory of heart function. It is worth noting that for most individuals during the measurements, the monitor displayed the symbol "E," indicating irregular or altered heartbeats.

The influence of self-regulation techniques on psychophysical processes: Research in the Vietnamese martial arts group Thien Mon Dao. Gdańskie Studia Azji Wschodniej,1, 69–83.

Study 1

SOUL IN THE BRAIN

The aim of the present research was to investigate the cognitive representations of the noetic perspective (spirituality) and the influence of the activation of these representations on information processing. The article presents the results of three experiments on groups of students (N = 186), using the lexical decision task (LDT) paradigm. In two of these experiments the depth of information processing was also measured by a memory test. The typical result for LDT procedure was not confirmed – the noetic perspective did not cause faster recognition of words related to this perspective. However, the activation of the noetic perspective in the condition of activated attention manifested itself in a better memory of noetic words and in the transfer of positive affect to related noetic objects.

Conclusion: The study findings suggest that the brain processes information related to spirituality, contingent upon its activation, which requires cognitive openness to spiritual concepts.

Keywords: noetic perspective, cognitive representation, information processing, lexical decision task

Różycka-Tran, J., Buczny, J., & Fila-Jankowska, A. (2014). The noetic perspective and information processing. Annals of Psychology, 17(1), 41–103.